We use privacy-friendly product analytics (no session recording, PII masked) to improve OpenStem. Load analytics? Privacy Policy
Biology: explore STEM content (page 4 of 50) · openstem
Explore STEM Content
Search the community's STEM library — free to study, yours to make your own.
Biology
Cells, genetics, ecology and physiology on openstem — flashcards, notes, quizzes, sketches and flowcharts shared by the community. Study free, or clone anything into your library.
The Molecular Clock Zuckerkandl and Pauling's original observation — that the number of amino-acid differences between homologous proteins in different species tends to scale roughly linearly with the time since those species diverged — bec
Biology
Biology · L5 · Molecular Evolution and Phylogenetics
How many heart chambers does a fish have, and what are they?1 / 10
A fish heart has 2 chambers — one atrium and one ventricle. Blood is pumped through the heart only once per full circuit around the body, called single circulation.
Biology
Biology · L3 · Circulatory System and Thermoregulation Across Vertebrate Classes
What are the core components of a eukaryotic RNA polymerase II promoter, and what is the role of the TATA box?1 / 10
The core promoter includes the transcription start site and nearby elements such as the TATA box (a conserved AT-rich sequence typically ~25-30 base pairs upstream of the start site in many genes). The TATA box is bound by TATA-binding protein (TBP), a subunit of the general transcription factor TFIID, which nucleates assembly of the rest of the general transcription machinery (TFIIA, B, D, E, F, H) and RNA polymerase II into the preinitiation complex. Not all genes have a strong TATA box; many, especially housekeeping genes, instead use alternative core elements (e.g. Initiator, DPE) for polymerase recruitment.
Biology
Biology · L4 · Promoters, Enhancers, and Transcription Factors
How does mTORC1 activity under nutrient-rich conditions suppress autophagy initiation at the molecular level?
AmTORC1 directly degrades LC3-II on the autophagosomal membrane.BmTORC1 phosphorylates ULK1 at an inhibitory site, suppressing ULK1 complex activity and hence autophagosome nucleation.CmTORC1 has no direct interaction with any component of the core autophagy machinery.DmTORC1 directly ubiquitinates ATG7 for proteasomal degradation.
Describe the core molecular machinery of macroautophagy, from autophagosome nucleation through the ULK1 and PI3K class III complexes to elongation via the ATG12-ATG5-ATG16L1 and LC3 conjugation systems.1 / 9
Autophagy initiation begins with activation of the ULK1 complex (ULK1, ATG13, FIP200, ATG101), which is directly inhibited by mTORC1 phosphorylation under nutrient-replete conditions and activated by AMPK phosphorylation under energy stress; active ULK1 phosphorylates and activates the class III PI3K complex (VPS34, Beclin-1, VPS15, ATG14L), generating phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate at the nucleation site that recruits downstream effectors and marks the site of the forming isolation membrane (phagophore).
Why do most ordinary proteins stop working in extreme heat?1 / 10
Heat makes molecules vibrate more violently, which can break the weak bonds (like hydrogen bonds) that hold a protein folded into its precise 3D shape. Once a protein unfolds, or "denatures," it usually stops working — this is the same reason a cooked egg white turns solid and opaque.
Biology
Biology · L3 · How Extremophiles Survive — Molecular Adaptations
What Is a Habitat? A habitat is a home for a plant or animal. It gives them food, water, and shelter, which means a safe place to stay. Kinds of Habitats Why Habitats Matter Every animal needs the right habitat to survive. If a habitat chan
Pepsinogen is converted to active pepsin primarily by:
ABicarbonate secreted by the pancreasBThe acidic environment of the stomach, with pepsin then autocatalytically activating more pepsinogenCBile salts released from the gallbladderDEnteropeptidase in the duodenum
Describe the chromosome conformation capture (3C) technique and how it is scaled up into Hi-C to map genome-wide chromatin contacts.1 / 9
Chromosome conformation capture (3C) formaldehyde-crosslinks chromatin in its native folded state, digests the crosslinked DNA with a restriction enzyme, then performs intramolecular proximity ligation under dilute conditions (favoring ligation between crosslinked, spatially adjacent fragments over random intermolecular ligation), so that DNA fragments far apart in linear sequence but close together in 3D space become joined into a single ligation product detectable by locus-specific PCR.
Biology
Biology · L5 · Chromatin and 3D Genome Organization